Septiyani Wafda 109014000077 VB
Book Response Form
Book title : Brain Matters
Author : Patricia Wolfe
Publisher : ASCD
Date Published: 2010 Number
of pages: 246
Genre : Reference
CHAPTER
PART I: The Structure and Function of the Human Brain
1.
Opening the Black Box of the Brain
Probably
this chapter will tell us something about the brain. It is tells us about our
understanding of human brain functioning.
2.
Brain Anatomy---A Short Course: Neurons and Subcortical Structures
I
think this chapter will tell us about the basic structural and functional unit
of the brain that is cell. This chapter also helps us to think how we can
remember the words, the number, etc.
3.
Brain Anatomy---A short Course: The Cortex
This chapter told about the part
of the brain that allows us to be aware, to recognize, and to talk about how
we’re feeling and what we’re thinking. This chapter told us about the conscious
and unconscious of a small part of what is going on inside our brain.
4.
How Neurons Communicate
The chapter told about the
majority of neurons in the mature of human brain, which do not communicate
solely using electricity. The chapter also told about how neurons communicate
and make us possible to read a words.
PART II: Brain Development from Birth through Adolescence
5.
The Early and Middle Years
This chapter told about the development
of brain in the early and middle years. This chapter also told about the
significant changes in young brain that are important for both parents and
teachers to understand.
6.
The Adolescent Brain: A work in Progress
This
chapter is the continuation from the previous chapter. If the previous chapter
told about the development of the brain in the early and middle year, this
chapter probably told about the development of the brain in the adolescent, because that are very complex
changes in the brain throughout adolescence.
7.
The Role of Exercise, Sleep, Nutrition, and Technology
This chapter
probably told about the neuroplasticity. This chapter also told about the
brain’s ability to change based on environmental factors.
PART III: From Sensory Input to Information Storage
8.
Sensory Memory: Getting Information into the Brain
This
chapter told about the distinction between the learning and memory. The chapter
also told about why people lost their memories that makes them forget who they
are.
9.
Working Memory: The Conscious Processing of Information
This
chapter told about the working memory. This chapter informs us that working
memory allows us to integrate current information with our background knowledge
and to consciously manipulate information well enough to ensure its storage in
long-term memory.
10. Long-Term Memory: The
Brain’s Storage System
This
chapter told about how our memory can store the information to the long-term
memory. The chapter also discussed about the factors that influence the
strength of these memory.
PART IV: Matching Instruction to How the Brain Learns Best
11. Making Curriculum
Meaningful Through Problems, Projects, and Simulations
This
chapter told about how to make the curriculum meaningful. This chapter also
discussed how to include our experience into the curriculum.
12. Using the Visual and
Auditory Sense to Enhance Learning
This
chapter informs us that sensory ability are powerful components of brain
functioning. This chapter also teaches us how to use them in the classroom to
enhance students’ understanding.
13. A toolkit of
Brain-Compatible Strategies
This
chapter probably told about how the brain process information. The chapter also
discuss about the strategies that elaborate on information to increase its
meaning, as well as the probability of its retention.
14. A Final Note on
Brain-Compatible Teaching and Learning
This
chapter gives us the brief summarize of the whole chapter. This last chapter
also told about the brain-compatible instruction.
CONTENT
PART I: The Structure and Function of the Human Brain
1.
Opening the Black Box of
the Brain (page 3)
1.1.
Early Brain-Imaging
Techniques
1.2.
X-Rays
1.3.
Computerized Axial
Tomography (CAT) Scans
1.4.
Monitoring the Brain’s
Energy Consumption
1.5.
Positron Emission Tomography
(PET) Scan
1.6.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI) Technology
1.7.
Functional Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (FMRI) Technology
1.8.
Electroencephalography
(EEG)
1.9.
Magnetoencephalography
(MEG)
1.10.
Event-Related Potential
(ERP)
1.11.
Single –Photon Emission
Computed Tomography (SPECT)
1.12.
On the Horizon
1.13.
Interpreting Brain Imaging
for Educational Purposes
2.
Brain Anatomy---A Short
Course: Neurons and Subcortical Structures (page16)
2.1.
Starting at the Beginning:
The Cells
2.2.
Neurons
2.3.
Glial Cells
2.4.
Central Nervous System
Structures that Operate at the Unconscious Level
2.5.
Spinal Cord
2.6.
Brainstem
2.7.
Cerebellum
2.8.
Thalamus
2.9.
Hypothalamus
2.10.
Amygdala
2.11.
Hippocampus
3.
Brain Anatomy---A short
Course: The Cortex (page 33)
3.1.
The Cerebral Cortex
3.2.
Occipital Lobes
3.3.
Temporal Lobes
3.4.
Parietal Lobes
3.5.
Frontal Lobes
3.6.
Teaching to Both Halves of
the Brain
4.
How Neurons Communicate
(page 51)
4.1.
The Action Potential: The
Brain’s Electrical Signal
4.2.
The Synapse
4.3.
More About
Neurotransmitters
4.4.
Types of Neurotransmitters
4.4.1. Amino Acids
4.4.2. Amines
4.5.
Peptides
4.6.
The Mind-Body Connection
4.7.
Understanding Addiction
PART II: Brain Development from Birth through Adolescence
5. The Early and Middle Years (page 74)
5.1.
Brain Growth and
Development: Birth to Five
5.2.
Brain Growth and
Development: Six to Twelve
6.
The Adolescent Brain: A
work in Progress (page 82)
6.1.
Changes in the Adolescent
Brain
6.2.
Substance Abuse During
Adolescence
6.3.
Adolescent Sleep Patterns
6.4.
Teaching the Adolescent
7. The Role of Exercise, Sleep, Nutrition, and Technology (page 93)
7.1.
Moving to Learn
7.2.
Sleep on It
7.3.
Nutrition’s Role in Brain
Development and Function
7.4.
Technology and the Brain
PART III: From Sensory Input to Information Storage
8. Sensory Memory: Getting Information into the Brain (page 107)
8.1.
Metaphors for Memory
8.2.
An Introduction to the
Model
8.3.
Sensory Memory
8.4.
From Sensory Signals to
Perceptions
8.5.
From perception to
Attention
8.6.
Meaning and Attention
8.7.
Emotion and Attention
9. Working Memory: The Conscious Processing of Information (page
122)
9.1.
Characteristics of Working
Memory
9.2.
Overcoming the Limits of
Working Memory
9.2.1. Chunking
9.2.2. Rote Rehearsal
9.2.3. Elaborative Rehearsal
9.3.
Meaning and Retention
9.4.
Emotion and Retention
9.4.1. The Stress (“Fight or Flight”) Response
9.4.2. The Stress Response and Memory
9.4.3. Adding an Emotional Hook to Learning
9.4.4. The Flip Side of Emotion
10. Long-Term Memory: The Brain’s Storage System (page 143)
10.1.
Types of Memory Storage
10.1.1. Declarative Memory
10.1.2. Procedural Memory
10.2.
The Cellular Basis of
Memory
10.2.1. Long-term Potentiation (LTP)
10.3.
Growth of Synapses
10.4.
Pathways to Long-Term
Storage
10.4.1. The Procedural Pathway
10.4.2. The Declarative Pathway
10.4.3. Consolidation
10.5.
Educational Implications
PART IV: Matching Instruction to How the Brain Learns Best
11. Making Curriculum Meaningful Through Problems, Projects, and
Simulations (page 166)
11.1.
Three Levels of Learning
11.1.1. Concrete Experience
11.1.2. Symbolic or Representational Learning
11.1.3. Abstract Learning
11.2.
Involving Students in
Real-Life Problem Solving
11.2.1. Lower Elementary School
11.2.2. Upper Elementary School
11.2.3. Middle School
11.2.4. Secondary School
11.2.5. All Levels
11.3.
Using Projects to Increase
Meaning and Motivation
11.3.1. Lower Elementary School
11.3.2. Upper Elementary School
11.3.3. Middle School
11.3.4. Secondary School
11.3.5. All Levels
11.4.
Using Simulations and
Role-Plays to Make Meaning
11.4.1. Lower Elementary School
11.4.2. Upper Elementary School
11.4.3. Middle School
11.4.4. Secondary School
11.4.5. All Levels
12. Using the Visual and Auditory Sense to Enhance Learning (page 182)
12.1.
A Picture Is Worth at Least
10,000 Words
12.1.1. “I Never Forget a Face”
12.1.2. Thinking in Pictures
12.2.
Classroom Strategies Using
Visual Processing
12.2.1. Elementary School
12.2.2. Middle School
12.2.3. Secondary School
12.2.4. All Levels
12.3.
Music (Rhyme and Rhythm)
Hath Many Charms
12.3.1. Music and Emotion
12.3.2. Music, Mozart, and Math
12.3.3. Using Music, Rhyme, and Rhythm in the Classroom
12.3.4. Piggyback Songs
12.3.5. Rhythm, Rhyme, and Rap
12.3.6. Commercial Songs
13. A toolkit of Brain-Compatible Strategies (page 200)
13.1.
Enhancing Understanding
Through Writing Activities
13.1.1. Writing Strategies for Mathematics
13.1.2. Writing Strategies for History and Social Studies
13.1.3. Writing Strategies for Science
13.1.4. Writing Strategies Across All Curriculum Areas
13.2.
Mnemonics as Tools to Aid
Memory
13.2.1. Why Mnemonics Work
13.2.2. Types of Mnemonic Strategies
13.2.3. Teaching Mnemonic Strategies
13.3.
Active Rehearsal Strategies
for Long-Term retention
13.3.1. Peer Teaching
13.3.2. Active Review
13.3.3. Hands-On Learning Activities
14. A Final Note on Brain-Compatible Teaching and Learning (page 221)
QUESTION AND ANSWER
PART I: The Structure and Function of the Human Brain
1.
Opening the Black Box of the Brain (page 3)
1.1.
Early Brain-Imaging
Techniques
What are early
Brain-Imaging Techniques?
The
first of brain imaging techniques was developed in 1800s, but the past 20 years
have seen an amazing advance in the sophistication of ways to image the inner
functioning of the human brain.
1.2.
X-Rays
What are X-Rays?
X-Rays
are high-frequency electromagnetic waves that easily penetrate nonmetallic
object.
1.3.
Computerized Axial
Tomography (CAT) Scans
What is Computerized
Axial Tomography (CAT) scans?
In
the early 1970s, a technique was developed to increase the gradations in shades
of gray from the approximately 25 of the normal X-ray to more than 200.
1.4.
Monitoring the Brain’s
Energy Consumption
How to
monitoring the Brain’s Energy Consumption?
The
major source of energy for the brain is oxygen and glucose, which is a simple
carbohydrate. When certain areas of the brain are active, cells in those areas
have a greater need for glucose and oxygen.
1.5.
Positron Emission
Tomography (PET) Scan
What is Positron
Emission Tomography (PET) scan?
PET
is one of the most exciting advances in brain imaging. This technique allows
scientist to picture the general anatomical areas that become active while a
person performs various mental tasks.
1.6.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI) Technology
What is Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI) technology?
MRI
is a scanner that will make the water molecules in the brain resonate and give
off radio signals of their own.
1.7.
Functional Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (FMRI) Technology
What is the
functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) technology?
fMRI
is one of the newest brain-imaging techniques to address some of the
shortcomings of PET and MRI scans. The primary goal of fMRI is to show not only
structures of the brain but also neural activity.
1.8.
Electroencephalography
(EEG)
What is
Electroencephalography (EEG)?
EEG
is an imaging tool that has been in use for more than half a century. It
measures electrical patterns created by the oscillations of neurons.
1.9.
Magnetoencephalography
(MEG)
What is Magnetoencephalography
(MEG)?
MEG
is a scanner that tracks the magnetic signals that neurons emit as they
communicate. (Neurons produce a magnetic field every time they are active.) MEG
scanners work in “real time” with no delay, contrary to PET scans, which take a
second or two for blood flow to move in the brain.
1.10.
Event-Related Potential
(ERP)
What is
Event-Related Potential (ERP)?
ERP
the signals that are obtained by time-locking the recording of an EEG to a
specific event, such as a subject reading a word, listening to a musical note,
or viewing a photograph.
1.11.
Single –Photon Emission
Computed Tomography (SPECT)
What is Single
–Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT)?
SPECT
is a brain-imaging technique similar to a PET scan. Both use radioactive
tracers; however, in a PET scan the tracer is absorbed into the tissues, while
SPECT tracers stay in the blood stream, limiting the images to the areas where
blood flows.
1.12.
On the Horizon
What is On the
Horizon?
Early
studies support the idea that an underlying neurological dysfunction is linked
to the behaviors of children and adults with this disorder.
1.13.
Interpreting Brain Imaging
for Educational Purposes
How to interpret
brain imaging for educational purposes?
One
way to interpret these is that comprehension is greater when one reads
silently.
2.
Brain Anatomy---A Short Course: Neurons and Subcortical Structures
(page16)
2.1.
Starting at the Beginning:
The Cells
What are the
Cells?
The entire body is composed of
cells. The muscles, lining of the intestines, bones skin, and brain are all
made up of billions of these basic units. Each cell or group of cells has a
specific job to perform.
2.2.
Neurons
What is Neurons?
Neurons, found primarily in the
brain and in the spinal cord (the central nervous system), number approximately
100 billion. They differ from most of the other cells in the body in two major
ways. First, with some exceptions, they do not appear to regenerate on a
regular, programmed basis, as do most other cells. The second major way that neurons
differ from other types of cells is in their ability to transmit information.
2.3.
Glial Cells
What is Glial
Cells?
The
glial cells, also known as neuroglia, derived from the Greek word meaning
“glue,” which reflects a mistaken assumption that these cells in some way hold
the neurons together.
2.4.
Central Nervous System
Structures that Operate at the Unconscious Level
What are central
nervous system structures that operate at the unconscious level?
A
simplified look at the brain would reveal two major divisions: (1) a relatively
small subcortical system that operates at an unconscious level, processing
basic survival tasks; and (2) a much larger cortex that process the conscious
decisions and responses we make to novel situations not covered by subcortical
systems.
2.5.
Spinal Cord
What is Spinal
Cord?
Spinal
cord is a large bundle of nerve fibers attached to the brainstem that runs from
the base of the brain down to the middle of the back and is about 18 inches
long (in an adult) and slightly thinner than an index finger.
2.6.
Brainstem
What is
Brainstem?
The
brainstem, located at the base of the brain where the spinal cord begins, is
one of the oldest parts of the brain in terms of evaluation. It is made up of
three main parts: the midbrain ( upper end), the pons (center area), and the
medulla oblongata (lower end).
2.7.
Cerebellum
What is
Cerebellum?
Cerebellum
is derived from Latin and means “little brain.” It is a two-lobed, deeply
folded structure overlaying the top of the brain stem, just under the occipital
lobes, in the posterior portion of the brain.
2.8.
Thalamus
What is
Thalamus?
Thalamus
is named for the Greek word for “chamber” or “inner room,” this brain structure
is in a strategic position to act as a relay station to direct the flow of
information between the sense organs and the cortex.
2.9.
Hypothalamus
What is
Hypothalamus?
Hypothalamus
is a critical part of the autonomic system, and, along with the pituitary
gland, it controls functions necessary for homeostasis, maintaining the normal
state of the body.
2.10.
Amygdala
What is
Amygdala?
Amygdala
is another brain structure highly involved in the fight-or-flight response, and
located near thalamus and hypothalamus.
2.11.
Hippocampus
What is
Hippocampus?
Although
hippocampus name is derived from Latin word for seahorse, the hippocampus look more
like two paws curving toward each other. Without it, you would not be able to
remember where you parked your car, or anything else in your immediate past, as
soon as you stopped giving it your attention.
3.
Brain Anatomy---A short Course: The Cortex (page 33)
3.1.
The Cerebral Cortex
What
is the Cerebral Cortex?
Covering
the cerebrum (the Latin word for “brain”) is a thin layer known as the cerebral
cortex, or neocortex—the “new cortex.” The word cortex is derived from the Latin word for “bark”; to a degree, the
cortex resembles the bark of a tree.
3.2.
Occipital Lobes
What
are Occipital Lobes?
Located
at the lower central back of the brain are the occipital lobes, the primary
brain centers for processing visual stimuli. Covered by cortical tissue, this
area of the brain is also called the visual cortex.
3.3.
Temporal Lobes
What
are Temporal Lobes?
Temporal lobes are located on either
side of the brain, just above the ears, are two lobes that curve forward from
the occipital lobes to below the frontal lobes. The main function is to process
auditory stimuli.
3.4.
Parietal Lobes
What
are Parietal Lobes?
Parietal lobes located at the top of
the brain are flat, plate-like areas in each hemisphere. These lobes consist of
two major subdivisions—the anterior and posterior parts—that play different,
but complementary, roles.
3.5.
Frontal Lobes
What
are Frontal Lobes?
The
frontal lobes occupy the largest part of the cortex and perform the most
complex functions. Located in the front of the brain and extending back to the
top of the head, the frontal lobe has expanded rapidly over the past 20,000
generations and is what most clearly distinguishes us from our ancestors.
3.6.
Teaching to Both Halves of
the Brain
How
to teach to both halves of the brain?
We
need to teach content within the context that is meaningful to students and
that connects to their own lives and experiences.
4.
How Neurons Communicate (page 51)
4.1.
The Action Potential: The
Brain’s Electrical Signal
What is the Brain’s Electrical Signal?
Most neurons communicate
with one another by means of both electrical and chemical signals. We have
known for many years that the brain produces some type of electricity. As early
as 1875, English psychologist Richard Caton recorded weak electrical currents
in the brain of monkeys. It wasn’t until 1929, however, that German Hans Berger
first recorded electrical signals in the human brain (Greenfield, 1997).
4.2.
The Synapse
What is the Synapse?
The
next step in understanding neural communication is to look at how the
electrical and chemical components come together to allow information to be
passed from cell to cell within the central nervous system. This all-important
action takes place at the junction of an axon terminal of one neuron and a
dendrite on the cell body of a second neuron. This junction is known as
synapse.
4.3.
More About
Neurotransmitters
What more about
Neurotransmitters?
To
be classified as neurotransmitters, a chemical compound in the brain must meet
six criteria. It must (1) be created in the neuron, (2) be stored in the neuron,
(3) be released by the neuron in sufficient quantity to bring about some
physical effect, (4) demonstrate the same effect experimentally that it does in
living tissue, (5) have receptor sites on receiving neuron specific for this
compound, and (6) have means for shutting off its effect (Ackerman, 1992).
4.4.
Types of Neurotransmitters
What are the types of
Neurotransmitters?
The types of neurotransmitters are: amino acid, and amines.
4.4.1. Amino Acids
What are Amino Acids?
Amino acids are derived from protein foods
and are found throughout the brain and the body.
4.4.2. Amines
What is Amines?
Amines (also called monoamines) are
chemically modified amino acids that act more slowly than other amino acids.
Rather than act directly at the synapse, they generally modulate the actions of
the amino acid neurotransmitters and, for this reason, are often called
neuromodulators.
4.5.
Peptides
What is Peptides?
Peptides
are either digestive products or hormones. those are composed of amino acids
joined together to form a chain.
4.6.
The Mind-Body Connection
What is The Mind-Body
Connection?
In
Receptors, Richard Restak states,
“our ‘gut feelings’ are more than mere metaphor . . . . The mental and the
psychal, the mind, the brain, and the body, are intrinsically linked by means
of these chemicals” (1994, p. 206).
4.7.
Understanding Addiction
How to understand
Addiction?
If
a chemical substance is synthesized in our brain, we call it a
neurotransmitter. If it is sythesized in a laboratory, it’s called a drug.
PART II: Brain Development from Birth through Adolescence
5.
The Early and Middle Years (page 74)
5.1.
Brain Growth and
Development: Birth to Five
What is brain
growth and development: birth to five?
The
explosion of new connections that begins during fatal development continues in
the months following birth. Milestone in
brain growth, from birth to the beginning of school, involve several processes.
While a child’s body grows at a steady pace, the brain develops in fits and
starts through several overlapping phases.
5.2.
Brain Growth and
Development: Six to Twelve
What is brain
growth and development: six to twelve?
What
Chunagi has found is a tremendous increase of synapses from birth to age four.
This represents the amazing amount of learning that takes place during the
first four years of life. After this period, growth plateaus and remains fairly
constant for the next six years or so until age 10.
6. The Adolescent Brain: A
work in Progress (page 82)
6.1.
Changes in the Adolescent
Brain
What are changes in the adolescent brain?
A long-range study by Jay Giedd and
his colleagues at the National Institute of Mental Health involved the use of
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to scan the brains of nearly 1,000
healthy children and adolescent aged 3 to 18. Giedd discovered that just prior
to puberty (between ages 9 and 10), the frontal lobes undergo a second wave of
reorganization and growth, representing million of new synapses (2007). Then,
around age 11, a massive pruning of these connections begins and continues into
early adulthood.
6.2.
Substance Abuse During
Adolescence
How to substance abuse during adolescence?
Teenagers who drink may be exposing their brains to the
toxic effects of alcohol during a critical time in brain development.
6.3.
Adolescent Sleep Patterns
What is Adolescent Sleep Patterns?
A common complaint voiced by parents of teenagers is that
their kids insist that they can’t fall asleep until midnight, but they require
shouts and coercion to get out of bed in the morning and make it to school on
time. Our sleep cycles are determined by circadian rhythms a sort of internal
biological clock that determines how much sleep we need, when we become sleepy
at night, and when we awaken in the morning.
6.4.
Teaching the Adolescent
How to teach the adolescent?
Adolescents are not adults, and they need to be taught in
a manner that both enables their brains to make sense of information and helps
them recognize how this new information is relevant to their lives.
7.
The Role of Exercise, Sleep, Nutrition, and Technology (page 93)
7.1.
Moving to Learn
What is Moving
to Learn?
Exercise
plays a very important role in the learning process in several ways. Studies
have shown that exercise enhances student learning and positively impacts
student’s emotional and physical well-being. Movement activities can serve as
quick “brain breaks” when students have been sitting idle for a prolonged period
of time.
7.2.
Sleep on It
What is Sleep on
It?
There
are periods during the sleep cycle when the brain is as active as when you are
awake and solving a problem. Behavioral and molecular studies suggest that the
“off-line” processing of information that occurs during asleep strongly
contributes to memory formation.
7.3.
Nutrition’s Role in Brain
Development and Function
What is
nutrition’s role in brain development and function?
Recent
studies have demonstrated the important connections between nutrition and brain
development and function. When students regularly eat a nutrious breakfast,
they exhibit significant gains on standardized test scores and in the classes.
7.4.
Technology and the Brain
What are
technology and the brain?
Some
technologies have a big effect to the brain. The example is television and
video game. Studies of video games that include situations where players work
together in a team to help one another have shown that children are able to
transfer these skills to other situations.
PART III: From Sensory Input to Information Storage
8.
Sensory Memory: Getting Information into the Brain (page 107)
8.1.
Metaphors for Memory
What is
Metaphors for Memory?
Some
popular metaphor for memory has its origin in the writings of Plato, who
likened the human mind to a tablet of wax on which impressions are made. In
this view, rehearsing experiences or information strengthens or deepens the
impressions, resulting in information that is more easily remembered.
8.2.
An Introduction to the
Model
What is an
Introduction to the Model?
For
the past several decades, the predominant model of memory has been an
information-processing model. Growing out of information-processing theory, it
became popular at the same time as, or perhaps as a result of, the invention of
the computer. Many variation on this model are the result of new understanding
gained from many fields, including neuroscience, cognitive psychology, and
developmental psychology.
8.3.
Sensory Memory
What is Sensory
Memory?
Sensory
memory is everything in our memory begins as a sensory input from the
environment. The role of sensory memory is to take the information coming into
the brain through sensory receptors and hold it for a fraction of a second
until a decision is made about what to do with it.
8.4.
From Sensory Signals to
Perceptions
What is from
Sensory Signals to Perceptions?
All
information received by sensory receptors needs to be sent to the appropriate
sensory cortex to be processed. All sensory data, except smells, trevel to the
thalamust first. From there, the data are relayed to the specific portion of
the cortex designated to process sight, sound, taste, or touch. It changes from
a photon of light or a sound wave into a percept.
8.5.
From Perception to
Attention
What is from Perception
to Attention?
It
is impossible to “not pay attention”; the brain is always pay attention to
something.
8.6.
Meaning and Attention
What is the
relation between the meaning and attention?
We
can now begin to understand the concept of meaning and the important role it
plays in attention. If the brain can find no previously activated networks into
which the new information fits, it is much less likely to attend to this
information. Our species has not survived by attending to and storing
meaningless information.
8.7.
Emotion and Attention
What is the
relation between the emotion and attention?
In
his talks to educators, Robert Sylmester often states, “Emotion drives
attention, and attention drives learning” (1995). To a large degree, this
appears to be true. Understanding why will require us to look more carefully at
several subcortical structures that control emotional responses.
9.
Working Memory: The Conscious Processing of Information (page 122)
9.1.
Characteristics of Working
Memory
What are the
characteristics of working memory?
The
characteristics are the 18-second holding pattern, the cocktail party effect,
and the magical number seven (plus or minus two).
9.2.
Overcoming the Limits of
Working Memory
9.2.1. Chunking
What is
Chunking?
The
limitations of working memory can be circumvented somewhat by the ability to
“chunk” information.
9.2.2. Rote Rehearsal
What is Rote
Rehearsal?
Rote
rehearsal consists of repeating the information or action over and over. It’s
what we generally use when we need to remember a phone number, from the time we
look it up until we dial the phone.
9.2.3. Elaborative Rehearsal
What is
Elaborative Rehearsal?
Elaborative
rehearsal is a broad category encompassing a variety of strategies. These
strategies encourage learners to elaborate on information in a manner that
enhances understanding and retention of that information.
9.3.
Meaning and Retention
What is the
relation between Meaning and Retention?
The
brain’s determination of what is meaningful and what is not is reflected in the
initial perceptual processes and in the conscious processing of information.
9.4.
Emotion and Retention
What is the relation
between Emotion and Retention?
The
short pathway between the thalamus and the amygdala ensures that we react
quickly to emotionally relevant information. This is not the only result of
facing emotional and potentially dangerous situations. In addition to a
behavioral reaction, the event is nearly always stamped with extra vividness,
which results in enhanced memories.
9.4.1. The Stress (“Fight or Flight”) Response
What is the
Stress (“Fight or Flight”) Response?
During
the stress response, heart rate increase, blood pressure goes up, senses become
more alert, muscles tense, palms become sweaty, blood-clotting elements
increase in the bloodstream, and all movement centers become mobilized.
9.4.2. The Stress Response and Memory
What is the
Stress Response and Memory?
The
neurochemical system that primes the body for an emergency also stamps that
moment in memory with extra vividness.
9.4.3. Adding an Emotional Hook to Learning
How to add an
Emotional Hook to learning?
Simulation
and role-plays often are highly engaging and enhance not only the meaning of
the material but the emotional connection as well. Solving real-life problem is
another way to raise the emotional and motivational stakes.
9.4.4. The Flip Side of Emotion
What is the Flip
Side of Emotion?
The
ability to experience and talk about our emotions is a singularly wonderful
human quality, but it has its downside.
10. Long-Term Memory: The
Brain’s Storage System (page 143)
10.1.
Types of Memory Storage
What are the
Types of Memory Storage?
The
types of memory storage are: declarative memory and procedural memory.
10.1.1. Declarative Memory
What is
Declarative Memory?
Declarative
memory is our ability to store and recall information that we can declare
(speak or write). Unlike procedural memory, declarative memory requires conscious
processing; it is reflective rather
than reflexive.
10.1.2. Procedural Memory
What is
Procedural Memory?
Procedural
memory is best described as knowing how versus knowing what. It is sometimes called nondeclarative; in other words, you do
not need to “declare” anything—and you may not be able to say much about what
you are doing—for the information to be stored.
10.2.
The Cellular Basis of
Memory
What is the
Cellular Basis of Memory?
It is
important to remember, however, that underlying our memory (regardless of type)
are neural changes that form the psychological basis of information storage and
retrieval.
10.2.1. Long-term Potentiation (LTP)
What is
Long-term Potentiation (LTP)?
Long-term
potentiation is a memory appears to entail a similar firing of neurons, but the
pattern of firing remains encoded in a neural circuit or network after the
stimulation that originally caused the neurons to fire has ceased.
10.2.2. Growth of Synapses
What is Growth
of Synapses?
Increases
of up to 20 percent more synapses per neuron were found in the visual cortex of
some of the animals.
10.3.
Pathways to Long-Term
Storage
What is Pathways
to Long-Term Storage?
There
are three pathways to long-term storage: the procedural pathway, the
declarative pathway, and the consolidation.
10.3.1. The Procedural Pathway
What is the
Procedural Pathway?
The
motor skills, habits, and perceptual skills are all examples of procedural or
nondeclarative.
10.3.2. The Declarative Pathway
What is the Declarative
Pathway?
Declarative
pathway is the journey from perception to storage of both semantic and episodic
memory begins when sensory receptors receive stimuli.
10.3.3. Consolidation
What is
Consolidation?
Consolidation
is undoubtedly enhanced by rehearsal. When we “replay” our experience (i.e.,
when we talk and think about them), we provide more opportunities for
consolidation.
10.4.
Educational Implications
What are
Educational Implications?
The
educational implication is building elaborative rehearsal strategies into our
instruction—allowing students time to process information in depth—will likely
increase the strength of students’ learning because these strategies allow
consolidation to take place.
PART IV: Matching Instruction to How the Brain Learns Best
11. Making Curriculum
Meaningful Through Problems, Projects, and Simulations (page 166)
11.1.
Three Levels of Learning
What are the
Three Levels of Learning?
The
three levels of learning are: concrete experience, symbolic or representational
learning, and abstract learning.
11.1.1. Concrete Experience
What is Concrete
Experience?
Concrete
experience is the experience that will be stored in your brain as an actual
physiological connection between neurons.
11.1.2. Symbolic or Representational Learning
What is Symbolic
or Representational Learning?
Symbolic
or representational learning is using symbols or representations of real
objects are a second level of learning that is directly related to concrete
experiences.
11.1.3. Abstract Learning
What is Abstract
Learning?
Abstract
learning is a learning that uses only abstract information, primarily words and
numbers.
11.2.
Involving Students in
Real-Life Problem Solving
How to involve
students in real-life problem solving?
The
real problems may not be easy to solve because of time constraints or insufficient
information, but it is through struggling with these issues that students learn
both content and critical thinking.
11.3.
Using Projects to Increase
Meaning and Motivation
How to use
projects to increase meaning and motivation?
Projects
and activities have rich potential as a means of engaging students and
increasing understanding. However, caution is warranted when deciding when and
how to use them.
11.4.
Using Simulations and Role-Plays
to Make Meaning
How to use
simulations and role-plays to make meaning?
To
use simulation and role-plays to make meaning are first, make certain that you
have a specific object or concept in mind to be addressed by the activity.
Second, spend sufficient time debriefing the simulation with students.
12. Using the Visual and
Auditory Sense to Enhance Learning (page 182)
12.1.
A Picture Is Worth at Least
10,000 Words
12.1.1. “I Never Forget a Face”
What the
sentence “I Never Forget a Face” means?
Investigators
showed subjects photographs of classmates two months after graduation. Not
surprisingly, the subjects were able to recognize 90 percent of those who had
been in their class. The amazing fact is that the recognition rate was still
close to 90 percent when they were tested 15 years later. The capacity for
long-term memory of visual information seems almost unlimited (Bahrick,
Bahrick, & Wittlinger, 1976).
12.1.2. Thinking in Pictures
How to think in
pictures?
The
ability to transform thoughts into images is often viewed as a test of true
understanding, but some people appear to process information the other way
around, literally seeming to comprehend information by visualizing it.
12.2.
Classroom Strategies Using
Visual Processing
How to use
visual processing in classroom strategies?
Using
visuals in the classroom can greatly increase students’ understanding and
retention of the curriculum. However, a word of caution is merited when
designing visuals at different grade levels.
12.3.
Music (Rhyme and Rhythm)
Hath Many Charms
What is Music
(Rhyme and Rhythm) Hath Many Charms?
Scientist
has found that music is a highly complex neural activity. Sound waves enter our
ears and are converted into nerve impulses by the organ of Corti n the cochlea.
From there, the impulses are transmitted to specialized regions in our left and
right temporal lobes for processing.
12.3.1. Music and Emotion
What is the
relation between Music and Emotion?
Robert
Zatorre, a neuroscientist at McGill University in Montreal, used PET scans to
examine cerebral blood flow changes related to affective responses to music. He
found that the parts of the brain involved in processing emotion “light up”
with activity when a subject hears music (Blood Aztorre, Bermudez, & Evans,
1999).
12.3.2. Music, Mozart, and Math
What is the
relation between Music, Mozart, and Math?
In
1993, physicist Gordon Shaw and his colleagues at the University of California,
Irvene reported that collage students who listened to Mozart’s Sonata for Two
Pianos in D Major performed better on reasoning tasks than they did after
listening to a relaxation tape or silence (Shaw, 2000).
12.3.3. Using Music, Rhyme, and Rhythm in the Classroom
How to use
Music, Rhyme, and Rhythm in the classroom?
Music
can be powerful and affective method to integrate various curricular areas.
Musical patterns and symbols are underlying concepts that help to make math
more understandable.
12.3.4. Piggyback Songs
What is
Piggyback Songs?
Piggyback
song is a song in which new words or concepts are set to a familiar melody.
12.3.5. Rhythm, Rhyme, and Rap
What are Rhythm,
Rhyme, and Rap?
Learning
content by embedding in it in music or rhyme is generally more effective if
students are involved in creating the product, rather than simply using one
composed by someone else.
12.3.6. Commercial Songs
What is
Commercial Songs?
a
commercial songs is a purchase tapes and CDs to teach nouns and verbs,
countries of the world, the order of the planets from the sun, the freedom
listed in the Constitution, and addition and subtraction facts.
13. A toolkit of
Brain-Compatible Strategies (page 200)
13.1.
Enhancing Understanding
Through Writing Activities
How to enhance
understanding through writing activities?
Writing
activities fit in the category of elaborative rehearsal because they challenge
students to clarify, organize, and express what they learn.
13.1.1. Writing Strategies for Mathematics
What are the
writing strategies for mathematics?
At
every grade level, students’ understanding of mathematical concepts can be
enhanced by writing about what they are studying.
13.1.2. Writing Strategies for History and Social Studies
What are the
writing strategies for history and social studies?
Writing
can be a motivating learning experience if students have something memorable to
write about it.
13.1.3. Writing Strategies for Science
What are the
writing strategies for science?
Writing
plays an important role in the life of scientist because they must describe
their hypotheses and experimental designs in a precise manner, carefully
document each step of their studies, and accurately communicate their findings
and conclusions to readers.
13.1.4. Writing Strategies Across All Curriculum Areas
What are writing
strategies across all curriculum areas?
Opportunities
for writing exist in all classes and at every grade level. Student journals are
a rich source of information for the teacher, and they serve as efficient
vehicles for reflections as students refine their thinking.
13.2.
Mnemonics as Tools to Aid
Memory
How to use
Mnemonics as tools to aid memory?
Mnemonics
have a long, rich history; people in ancient Greece used them extensively and
considered mnemonics a rigorous art requiring imagination, effort, and a good
mind.
13.2.1. Why Mnemonics Work
Why Mnemonics
Work?
Mnemonics
are based on the principle that the brain is a pattern seeking device, always
looking for associations between the information it receives and the
information it has already stored.
13.2.2. Types of Mnemonic Strategies
What are the types
of Mnemonic Strategies?
The
types of mnemonic strategies are: keyword mnemonics, loci mnemonics, and
narrative chaining.
13.2.3. Teaching Mnemonic Strategies
What is teaching
Mnemonic strategies?
Teachers
can help students understand how their memories work, demonstrate various
mnemonic device, and provide prompts for when to use these strategies.
13.3.
Active Rehearsal Strategies
for Long-Term retention
What are active
rehearsal strategies for long-term retention?
The
strategies are peer teaching, active review, and hands-on learning activities.
13.3.1. Peer Teaching
What is Peer
Teaching?
Peer
teaching can be structured in various ways. Students can write a short summary
or sketch a quick web what they’ve learned before teaching each other; the
tacher can instruct students to reflect on what they’ve learned for one minute
before engaging in teaching; or student pairs can teach other pairs.
13.3.2. Active Review
What is Active
Review?
Active
review is a review of previously material.
13.3.3. Hands-On Learning Activities
What is Hands-On
Learning Activities?
Hands-on
activities are extremely valuable as long as they are also “minds-on.”
14. A Final Note on
Brain-Compatible Teaching and Learning (page 221)
What is a final
note on brain-compatible teaching and learning?
Brain-compatible
instruction:
a. Provides as much experiential learning as possible.
b. Builds on prior knowledge.
c. Requires the use of appropriate rehearsal strategies.
d. Needs to provide many opportunities for students to revisit
information over time.
e. Emphasizes concepts over individual facts.
f. Assists students in understanding information and when and how that
information is used in the “real world.”
g. Takes place in a safe psychological environment.
h. Takes advantage of the fact that emotional events are remembered
longer.
0 komentar:
Posting Komentar