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Book title : Materials and Methods in ELT
Author : Jo McDonough and Christopher Shaw
Publisher : Blackwell
Date Published: 1993 Number
of pages: 246
Genre : Reference
CHAPTERS
PART I: Topic in the Design of Materials and Methods
1.
The Framework of Materials and Methods
This chapter probably told about our
individual teaching circumstances to what can be thought of as a professional
‘common core’. This has relevance to all teachers, whether we work in a Japanese
high school, a Mexican university, a private language school in Spain, a Chinese
polytechnique, a Turkish secondary school.
2.
The Impact of the Communicative Approach
In this chapter we shall first very briefly
survey the recent history of English language teaching, emphasizing the period
when dissatisfaction began to be voiced with what was then the dominant
approach to syllabus and materials design. In this chapter also we shall then
see how the gradual adoption of a communicative approach expresses itself in
the claims made for the appropriacy of language teaching materials.
3.
Current Approaches to Materials Design
In this chapter we probably take some fairly
popular courses available on the general market, a partly on the argument that
if a course is use frequently, then its users probably find it relevant and
appropriate.
4.
Evaluating ELT Materials
In this chapter we shall discuss about the
process of evaluating ELT materials, what the teachers should do to evaluate
the materials.
5.
Adapting Materials
In this chapter we shall first set the scene
for a discussion of adaptation by looking at ways in which the concept can be
understood. We shall then try to enumerate some of the reasons why teacher
might need to adapt their teaching materials. Finally, in the main part of the
chapter, this reason will be examined in terms of the procedures typically used
in adaptation.
PART II: Teaching Language Skills
6.
Reading Skills
This chapter told about the different types
of materials that we read and how these are linked to the purpose that we have
in reading.
7.
Listening Skills
This chapter will first briefly consider the
similarities between reading and listening comprehension, and the ways in which
they differ. We shall than examine the nature of listening as a skill and the futures of the spoken language
to which the skill is applied.
8.
Speaking Skills
In this chapter we shall see that speaking is
not the oral production of written language but involves learners in the
mastery of a wide range of sub skills which edit together constitute and
overall competence in spoken language.
9.
Writing Skills
In this chapter we will discuss the survey
for writing and the different types of writing associated with them. The
central center will focus on a number of approach to teaching writing,
particularly as express in teaching materials, and will try to show how
perspective have gradually changed.
10. Integrated Skills
In this list chapter we consider some of
different ways in which these language skills may be taught in an integrated
way in the classroom.
CONTENT
PART I: Topic in the Design of Materials and Methods
1.
The Framework of Materials and Methods
1.1.
The framework: context and syllabus
1.2.
Contextual factors
1.3.
The syllabus
2.
The Impact of the Communicative Approach
2.1.
Some background
2.2.
Implication of the communicative approach for teaching purpose
2.3.
Possibilities and problems
3.
Current Approaches to Materials Design
3.1.
New beginnings
3.2.
Some claims for current materials
3.3.
Organization and coverage
3.3.1.
Multi-syllabus
3.3.2.
The lexical syllabus
3.4.
Learners
4.
Evaluating ELT Materials
4.1.
The context of evaluation
4.2.
The external evaluation
4.3.
The internal evaluation
4.4.
The overall evaluation
5.
Adapting Materials
5.1.
The context of adaption
5.2.
Reasons for adapting
5.3.
Principles and procedures
5.4.
Adding
5.5.
Deleting or omitting
5.6.
Modifying
5.7.
Simplifying
PART II: Teaching Language Skills
6.
Reading Skills
6.1.
Changes in the concept of reading skills
6.2.
Types of reading skill
6.3.
Schema theory
6.4.
Implication
6.5.
Classroom practice and procedure
6.6.
Feedback to learners
7.
Listening Skills
7.1.
Reasons for listening
7.2.
What do reading and listening have in common?
7.3.
How do they differ?
7.4.
Listening skills
7.5.
Listening comprehension: Teaching and Learning
7.6.
Learners
7.7.
Materials for teaching listening comprehension
8.
Speaking Skill
8.1.
Reasons for speaking
8.2.
Characteristics of spoken language
8.3.
Classroom implications
8.4.
Types of activity to promote speaking skills
8.5.
Communication games
8.6.
Problem solving
8.7.
Simulation/role play materials
8.8.
Materials requiring personal responses
8.9.
Materials illustrating rules/patterns of conversation
9.
Writing Skills
9.1.
Reasons for writing
9.2.
Writing materials in the language class
9.3.
‘traditional’ writing activities
9.4.
The written product
9.5.
Levels of writing
9.6.
Audience
9.7.
The writing process
9.8.
The writer’s perspective
9.9.
Writing in the classroom
9.10.
Correcting written work
10. Integrated Skills
10.1.
Situations requiring skills integration
10.2.
Integrated skills in the classroom
10.3.
General materials
10.4.
EAP materials
10.5.
Listening and note-taking using audio/video materials
QUESTION AND ANSWER
PART I: Topic in the Design of Materials and Methods
1.
The Framework of Materials and Methods
1.1.
The framework: context and syllabus
What is the
framework of context and syllabus?
The framework of context
and syllabus is the view that materials and methods cannot be seen in isolation,
but are embedded within a broader professional context.
1.2.
Contextual factors
What are
the contextual factors?
The contextual
factors of materials and designs are considers the learner’s:
a.
Age
b.
Interests
c.
Level of proficiency
d.
Aptitude
e.
Mother tongue
f.
Academic and educational level
g.
Attitudes to learning
h.
Motivation
i.
Reasons for learning
j.
Preferred learning styles
k.
Personality
1.3.
The syllabus
What is the
syllabus?
The
syllabus is the overall organizing principle for what is to be taught and
learned.
2.
The Impact of the Communicative Approach
2.1.
Some background
What is the
background?
The background of
communicative approach is essentially a manifestation of the 1970s, in the
sense that this was the decade when the most explicit debate took place, especially
in the UK.
2.2.
Implication of the communicative approach for teaching purpose
What is the
implication of the communicative approach for teaching purpose?
There are seven
implication discussed:
1.
‘Communicative’ implies ‘semantic’, a concern with the meaning potential
of language.
2.
There is a complex relationship between language form and language
function.
3.
Form and function operate as part of a wider network of factors.
4.
Appropriacy of language use has to be considered alongside accuracy. This
has implication for attitudes to error.
5.
‘Communicative’ is relevant to all four language skills.
6.
The concept of communication takes us beyond the level of the sentence.
7.
‘Communicative’ can refer both to the properties of language and to behavior.
2.3.
Possibilities and problems
What are
the possibilities and problems?
There are a number of
reasons why a communicative approach is an attractive one, providing a richer
teaching and learning environment. It can:
·
Include wider consideration of what is appropriate as well as what is
accurate
·
Handle a wider range of language, covering texts and conversations as
well as sentences
·
Provide realistic and motivating language practice
·
Use what learners ‘know’ about the function of language from their
experience with their own mother tongues
3.
Current Approaches to Materials Design
3.1.
New beginnings
What are
the new beginnings?
Many of the key
principles of the approach have been incorporated into materials, although not
necessarily directly. For example, how certain aspect have come into more
central focus, how others have been re-interpreted depending on teaching
objectives, and how more recent insight into the nature of language and
language learning have come to join them.
3.2.
Some claims for current materials
What are
the claims for current materials?
The claims for current
materials divided into two broad and related areas: content and learning.
Several of them come together in the phrase ‘the multi-syllabus approach’.
3.3.
Organization and coverage
3.3.1.
Multi-syllabus
What is
multi-syllabus?
The focus of multi syllabus was
certainly on semantic criteria: nevertheless, the teaching materials derived
from this perspective (Morrow and Johnson, communicate, 1980) have both
communicative and formal elements, and include work on functions, settings,
roles, and grammar.
3.3.2.
The lexical syllabus
What is the
lexical syllabus?
The lexical syllabus
concept means that vocabulary is selected according to the other dimensions on
which the materials are built.
3.4.
Learners
Who are the
learners?
The first of the
perspective is normally characterized by the concept of ‘individual
differences’; the second is studied under the heading of ‘language
acquisition’.
4.
Evaluating ELT Materials
4.1.
The context of evaluation
What is the
context of evaluation?
The context of
evaluation is typical factor to consider is that teachers/course organizers are
often under considerable professional and financial pressure to select a
coursebook for an ELT programme which will then become the textbook maybe for
years to come.
4.2.
The external evaluation
What is the
external evaluation?
The external evaluation
is external overview of how the materials have been organized.
4.3.
The internal evaluation
What is the
internal evaluation?
The internal evaluation
is a stage for us to analyze the extent to which the aforementioned factors in
the external evaluation stage actually match up with the internal consistency
and organization of the materials as stated by the author/publisher, strong
claims are often made for the materials.
4.4.
The overall evaluation
What is the
overall evaluation?
The overall evaluation
is an overall assessment as to the suitability of the materials by considering these
following parameters:
1.
The usability facto
2.
The generalizability factor
3.
The adaptability factor
4.
The flexibility factor.
5.
Adapting Materials
5.1.
The context of adaption
What is the
context of adaption?
The context of adaption
is a process subsequent to, and dependent on, adaption. Furthermore, whereas adaption
is concerned with whole coursebook, adaption concerns the parts that make up
that whole.
5.2.
Reasons for adapting
What are
the reasons for adapting?
Some reasons for
adapting are:
·
Not enough grammar coverage in general
·
Not enough practice of grammar points of particular difficulty to these
learners
·
The communicative focus means that grammar is presented unsystematically
·
Reading passage contain too much unknown vocabulary
·
Not enough guidance on pronunciation
5.3.
Principles and procedures
What are
the principles and procedures?
The principles and
procedures are the main techniques that can be applied to content in order to
bring about change.
5.4.
Adding
What is
adding?
Adding is a very obvious
and straightforward idea, implying that materials are supplemented by putting
more into them, while taking into account the practical effect on time
allocation.
5.5.
Deleting or omitting
What is
deleting or omitting?
Deletion is clearly the
opposite process to that of addition, and as such needs no further clarification
as a term.
5.6.
Modifying
What is
modifying?
Modification is a very
general term in the language applying to any kind of change. In order to
introduce further possibilities for adaptation, we shall restrict its meaning
here to an internal change in the approach or focus of an exercise or other
piece of materials.
5.7.
Simplifying
What is
simplifying?
Simplification has a
number of further implications. Firstly, it is possible that any linguistic
change, lexical or grammatical, will have corresponding stylistic effect, and
will therefore change the meaning or intention of the original text.
PART II: Teaching Language Skills
6.
Reading Skills
6.1.
Changes in the concept of reading skills
What are
the changes in the concept of reading skills?
Reading material it
seems artificial because the intention is to draw learner’s attention to items
of structural usage rather than authentic features which are characteristic of
‘real’ text, or what makes text ‘hang together’.
6.2.
Types of reading skill
What are
the types of reading skill?
It is generally
recognized now that the efficient reader versed in ways of interacting with
various types of text, is flexible, and chooses appropriate reading strategies
depending on the particular text in question.
6.3.
Schema theory
What is
schema theory?
Schema theory is the
explanation how the knowledge that we have about the world is organized into
interrelated patterns based on our previous knowledge and experience.
6.4.
Implication
What is the
implication?
The implication is the
student is able to assess the difficulty of the materials for particular
learners and to grade them according to familiarity of topic, length and complexity
of structure and possible number of unfamiliar words/expressions, as
overloading learners with too much may well involve them in decoding vocabulary
at the expense of reading for meaning.
6.5.
Classroom practice and procedure
What is the
classroom practice and procedure?
White (1981) makes some
suggestions about the stages and procedure of a reading lesson which may help
us (a) to put the skill into a classroom context, and (b) to see some of its
possible relationship with the other language skills.
6.6.
Feedback to learners
What is the
feedback to learners?
The feedback to learners
is to consider the form of the question; for example, yes/no; true or false/;
multiple choice; non-verbal matrix to be completed; open ended question and the
type of question; what the question is actually trying to get out of the reader.
7.
Listening Skills
7.1.
Reasons for listening
What are
the reasons for listening?
The reason for listening
is to get the information from the speaker.
7.2.
What do reading and listening have in common?
What do
reading and listening have in common?
The traditional labeling
of reading as s ‘passive’ skill is both misleading and incorrect: this is now
well recognized as being equally so for listening.
7.3.
How do they differ?
How do they
differ?
The different between
reading and listening:
·
The medium is sound, and not print.
·
A listening context often contains visual clues, such as gesture, which
generally support the spoken words.
·
Information presented in speech tends to be less densely packed than it
is on the page, and it may also be more repetitive.
·
There is evidence to show the spoken language is often less complex in
its grammatical and discourse structure.
7.4.
Listening skills
What are
listening skills?
Listening skill understands
in any illustrative situation by simply ‘hearing’ the sound.
7.5.
Listening comprehension: Teaching and Learning
What are
Teaching and Learning in listening comprehension?
In a competent listener,
the micro-skills we have been surveying are engaged automatically. Language
learners, however articulate in their L
, are confronted with a rich and complex medium, a daunting array of
skills, and a foreign language.
, are confronted with a rich and complex medium, a daunting array of
skills, and a foreign language.
7.6.
Learners
Who are the
learners?
The learners are at
various stage of proficiency, and they differ across a range of characteristics
– age, interests, learning styles, aptitude, motivation, and so on.
7.7.
Materials for teaching listening comprehension
What are
the materials for teaching listening comprehension?
Traditionally, much classroom
practice consisted of the teacher reading aloud a written text, one or more
times, slowly and clearly, and then asking a number of comprehension question
about it.
8.
Speaking Skill
8.1.
Reasons for speaking
What are
the reasons for speaking?
The reason for speaking
is to communicate something to achieve a particular end.
8.2.
Characteristics of spoken language
What are
the characteristics of spoken language?
The characteristics of
spoken language are:
1.
Language is a system for the expression of meaning
2.
The primary function of language is for interaction and communication
3.
The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses
4.
The primary units of a language are not merely its grammatical and
structural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified
in discourse.
8.3.
Classroom implications
What are the
classroom implications?
One implication that
these routines have is that there is a need for speaking skills classes to
place more emphasis on the ‘frames’ of oral interactions.
8.4.
Types of activity to promote speaking skills
What are
the types of activity to promote speaking skills?
In recent teaching
materials a lot of attention has been paid to designing activities which focus
on tasks that are mediated through language or involve the negotiation and
sharing of information by the participants.
8.5.
Communication games
What are
the communication games?
Communication game is
speaking activities based on games that are often a useful way of giving
students valuable practice, especially, although by means exclusively, where
young learners are involved.
8.6.
Problem solving
What is
problem solving?
Problem solving is
student activities that given some problem from the teacher and they have to
solve it by discussion each other.
8.7.
Simulation/role play materials
What are
the simulation/role play materials?
Role play materials
often written specifically to get learners to express opinions, to present and defend
points of view and to evaluate arguments based on the notion of opinion gap.
8.8.
Materials requiring personal responses
What are
the materials that requiring personal responses?
One example of materials
is speaking personally by Porter-Ladousse (1983), which contains twelve
units of fluency practice which have been devised along these lines. The aim of
these materials is to encourage learners to react individually to question concerning
many aspects of their daily lives on such topics as: their image as seen by
others; their futures; views on honesty and truthfulness; and so on.
8.9.
Materials illustrating rules/patterns of conversation
What are
the materials that illustrating rules/patterns of conversation?
One example of the materials is Conversation
Gambits by Keller and Warner (1988). Their book aims to introduce learners
to the effective use of gambits in conversations. The materials are divided up
into opening gambits (starting and introducing ideas into a conversation),
linking gambits (linking your ideas to what someone else has just said), and
finally responding gambits (agreeing/disagreeing at different levels).
9.
Writing Skills
9.1.
Reasons for writing
What are
the reasons for writing?
Writing for most of us only
happens to any significant extent as part of formal education.
9.2.
Writing materials in the language class
What is a
writing material in the language class?
Writing in the language
class should only mirror the educational function (writing essays and
examination answers, taking notes from textbooks and so on) except perhaps in
certain ‘specific-purpose’ programmes.
9.3.
‘Traditional’ writing activities
What are
‘traditional’ writing activities?
‘Traditional’ writing
activities are:
1.
Controlled sentence construction
2.
Free composition
3.
The ‘homework’ function
9.4.
The written product
What is the
written product?
A comparable approach is
taken by Hedge, who refers to the production of piece of writing as ‘crafting’,
‘the way in which a writers put together the pieces of the text, developing
ideas through sentences and paragraphs within an overall structure’ (1988: 89).
9.5.
Levels of writing
What are
the levels of writing?
Some of the trends in the
teaching of discourse-level writing, and the techniques used, are readily
discernible from a glance at many of the published materials of the last ten
years or so.
9.6.
Audience
Who is the
audience?
The audience is the
students that perhaps can write
·
To other students: invitations, instructions, directions
·
For the whole class: a magazine, poster information, a cookbook with
recipes from different countries
·
For new students: information on the school and its locality
·
To the teacher (not
only for the teacher): about themselves, and the teacher can reply or
indeed initiate.
·
for themselves: list, notes, diaries
·
to pen friends
9.7.
The writing process
9.7.1.
The writer’s perspective
What is the
writer’s perspective?
The writer’s perspective
is writing is more like a ‘recursive’, even messy, activity, where we move
around among the different stages and carry out each stage several times, with
great personal variation.
9.7.2.
Writing in the classroom
How to
write in the classroom?
The classroom can
provide an environment for writing at each of the three main stages of (1)
gathering ideas: pre-writing and planning, (2) working on drafts, and (3)
preparing the final version.
9.8.
Correcting written work
How to
correct written work?
To correct written work
is by looking at, from the perspective of both ‘product’ and ‘process’,
inevitably lead to a much more varied view both of the role of the teacher and
the classroom environment, and of the criteria for making and assessing students’
written work.
10. Integrated Skills
10.1.
Situations requiring skills integration
What are
the situations that requiring skills integration?
From the skills integration point of
view the situations may be quite limited – such as speaking on the telephon and
taking down a massage or taking part in a conversation – or, alternatively,
they may be much longer and involve more skills integration.
10.2.
Integrated skills in the classroom
What are
the integrated skills in the classroom?
The integrated skills in the classroom
are:
1.
Authenticity
2.
Task continuity
3.
Real-world focus
4.
Language focus
5.
Learning focus
6.
Language-practice
7.
Problem solving
10.3.
General materials
What are
the general materials?
The general materials are designed
to allow learners to express what they want to say and to give some depth to
expressing it.
10.4.
EAP materials
What are
EAP materials?
EAP material is English for Academic
Purpose. Students who will be going on to study their specialist subject
through the medium of English.
10.5.
Listening and note-taking using audio/video materials
What are
listening and note-taking using audio/video materials?
Listening and note-taking using
audio/video materials is to incorporate listening and note-taking skills into
their classroom to use audio/videotape material which is available on the
market or, if recording equipment is available, to record a short sequence on a
topic which would be relevant to the needs of their own learners, thereby
motivating them further.
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